ARCHITECTURE OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
Melanie Michailidis

This course surveys the art and architecture of the Islamic world from the 7th through the 20th centuries using material available online through Archnet. It examines the form and function of architecture as well as the social, historical and cultural contexts, patterns of use, and evolving meanings attributed to buildings by the users. The course is designed for undergraduates and is based on a 13-week semester and biweekly meetings of approximately 1.5 hours, although the syllabus contains weekly headings so that adjustments can easily be made for classes meeting three times per week. The syllabus can be printed and distributed to students, whereas these notes are designed as a guide for the instructor, with lists of the readings, suggested monuments with links to the images, and the main points of stress for each lecture. Required readings are given in the order they should be read to ensure maximum comprehension. Recommended readings contain supplementary material, material which may be more difficult to comprehend, and articles on minor monuments and subsidiary topics. Adjustments may of course be made to suit the level of the students, the time available, and the interests of the instructor; what follows is a suggested course which attempts to instill in the student a broad awareness of the diversity and the main achievements of Islamic architecture from the beginnings of Islam to the present day.

Aim: The aim of this initial lecture is to introduce the course by providing the students with some basic background knowledge of Islam and its beginnings in the Arabian Peninsula and by making them aware of the difficulties of defining Islamic architecture.

Muhsin Mahdi, Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts, Architecture as Symbol & Self-Identity
Dogan Kuban, Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context, Architecture as Symbol & Self-Identity
Robert Hillenbrand, The Mosque in the Medieval Islamic World, AK Awards, 1985

Geoffrey King, Creswells' Appreciation of Arabian Architecture, Muqarnas 8, 1991
Oleg Grabar, Symbols & Signs in Islamic Architecture, Architecture as Symbol & Self-Identity
Oleg Grabar, Reflections on the Study of Islamic Art, Muqarnas 1, 1983
Nader Ardalan, The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture, Architecture as Symbol & Self-Identity
Fazlur Khan, The Islamic Environment: Can Future Learn from the Past? Toward an Architecture in the Spirit of Islam
Zahair Ud-Deen Khwaja, The Spirit of Islamic Architecture, Toward an Architecture in the Spirit of Islam

Kaaba, Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Mosque of the Prophet, Medina, Saudi Arabia
Said Naum Mosque, Jakarta, Indonesia
Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain
Sherefudins White Mosque, Bosnia and Herzogovina
Taj Mahal, Agra, India
Great Mosque of Isfahan
Alhambra, Granada, Spain

* Outline beginning of Islam: revelation, hijra, Muslim community in Mecca

* Outline basic tenets of Islam, stressing those most relevant to architecture: hajj and prayer

* Importance of Kaaba as an axis mundi and its uniqueness

* Functionality of Mosque of the Prophet: house, gathering place for community, shelter for those in need, place of prayer

* Characteristics of Mosque of the Prophet: rudimentary hypostyle construction, minbar, no mihrab or minaret

* Role of Arabia: not all Arabians were nomads, and both Mecca and Medina were settled towns, so Arabians did have architecture

* Discuss definitions of Islamic architecture, looking at examples from various times & places and including issues such as: Is this a cultural or a religious classification? Is there a uniform Islamic culture? Are there enough similarities between 10th century Spain and modern Indonesia to warrant their inclusion in a single category? Are there any inherently Islamic features in Islamic architecture? Can a specifically Islamic symbolism be discerned in the religious architecture of the Islamic world?

Aim: To introduce the early Islamic conquests and describe the Byzantine and Sasanian heritages of the newly conquered lands in order to lay the groundwork for explaining the development of a specifically Islamic architecture.

Archnet Building Styles: Byzantine and Sasanian
Cyril Mango, Approaches to Byzantine Architecture, Muqarnas 8, 1991
Lionel Bier, The Sasanian Palaces and their Influence in Early Islam, Ars Orientalis, 1993
Edward Keall, Forerunners of Umayyad Art: Sculptural Stone from the Hadramawt, Muqarnas 12, 1995

Deborah Klimburg-Salter, Dokhtar-i Noshirwan (Nigar) Reconsidered, Muqarnas 10, 1993
Irene Winter, Seat of Kingship/A Wonder to Behold: The Palace as Construct in the Ancient Near East, Ars Orientalis, 1993
Stefania Tateo, Umm er-Rasa, Jordan: From Roman-Byzantine to Islamic Town, Environmental Design, 2000
Slobodan Curcic, Late Antique Palaces: The Meaning of Urban Context, Ars Orientalis, 1993

* Historical background: Sasanian empire & Byzantium as the super-powers at the time when Islam emerged; outline the early Islamic conquests which resulted in the conquering of the Sasanians and of much of Byzantine territory
* Byzantine and Sasanian heritage, along with Arabian traditions, formed the basis of early Islamic art and architecture
* Byzantine architectural legacy contained the continuing traditions of classicism in an area which had been the most urbanized and cultured part of the Roman Empire: elements included the use of finely worked stone, domes resting on triangular pendentives, columns (often appropriated as spolia), and mosaics
* Elements of the Sasanian architectural legacy included brick or rubble construction coated with plaster, stucco decoration, heavy piers, domes resting on squinches, the chahar taq (the form of Zoroastrian fire temples), and the ivan (used to magnificent effect at Ctesiphon)

The Umayyad Period

Aim: To describe the Umayyad dialogue with the classical heritage of Syria, focusing on the first Islamic religious monument, the Dome of the Rock, and the grandest surviving Umayyad mosque, the Great Mosque of Damascus.

Archnet Building Styles: Umayyad
Nasser Rabbat, The Meaning of the Umayyad Dome of the Rock, Muqarnas 6, 1989
Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon, The Two Great Syrian Umayyad Mosques: Jerusalem and Damascus, Muqarnas 16, 1999

* Historical background: outline the emergence of the Umayyad dynasty and the movement of the capital to Damascus
* Classical heritage: stress that the Islamic world inherited classical traditions to the same degree as the West; point out the elements in both buildings clearly descended from the classical past, such as the links between the form of the Dome of the Rock and classical martyria, the use of a pre-existing site for the Great Mosque of Damascus and the incorporation of extant walls, towers, etc., classical features of the sanctuary facade and courtyard of the Great Mosque, and the use of both classical spolia and mosaic decoration in both buildings
* New Islamic features include the lack of figural decoration in both buildings, the use of epigraphy and stress on the differences between Islam and Christianity in the Dome of the Rock, and the mihrab, qibla orientation, use of towers for the call to prayer and the connection to the dar al-imara at the Great Mosque of Damascus
* Describe the differing interpretations of the meaning of the Dome of the RockDescribe the differing interpretations of the meaning of the mosaic decoration of the courtyard of the Great Mosque of Damascus

Aim: To continue elaborating on the Umayyad dialogue with their classical heritage, focusing on secular buildings.

Oleg Grabar, Umayyad Palaces Reconsidered, Ars Orientalis, 1993
Hafez Chehab, On the Identification of Anjar (Ayn al-Jarr) as an Umayyad Foundation, Muqarnas 10, 1993
Priscilla Soucek, Solomons Throne/Solomons Bath: Model or Metaphor? Ars Orientalis, 1993
Eva Baer, The Human Figure in Early Islamic Art: Some Preliminary Remarks, Muqarnas 16, 1999
Jamel Akbar, Khatta and the Territorial Structure of Early Muslim Towns, Muqarnas 6, 1989

Khirbat al-Mafjar, Jericho, Palestine
Mosque and Palace at Qusayr al-Hallabat and Hammam as-Sarakh, Amman, Jordan
Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, Palmyra, Syria
Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, Palmyra, Syria
Qasr al-Kharana, El Azraq , Jordan
Qasr al-Mshatta, Amman, Jordan
Umayyad Qasr at Amman, Jordan
Qusayr Amra**

* Classical heritage: adoption of Roman castrum form for new purposes, mosaic decoration at Qusayr al-Hallabat and both Qusur al-Hayr, frescos with classical themes at Qusayr Amra, baths at Qusayr Amra and Hammam as-Sarakh
* Elements of Sasanian heritage: domed 4-ivan chamber at Amman, stucco motifs in stone decoration of al-Mshatta, stucco decoration and hanging crown at Khirbat al-Mafjar, rubble & mortar construction at Qasr al-Kharana
* Purpose of qusur: describe various theories (desert retreats, hunting lodges, escape from city life and disease, arena for meeting with politically important tribes, pleasure palaces, agricultural estates, caravanserais, etc.), stressing that no one explanation is likely to encompass all the buildings
* Figural decoration: explain that this is forbidden only in a religious context and was acceptable in secular contexts in many places and times

Aim: To describe the movement of the centre of gravity of the Islamic world from Syria, steeped in its classical heritage, to Iraq, in the former Sasanian realm and to outline the growing Persian influence in Islamic architecture.

Aim: To describe the major Abbasid monuments of North Africa, in the only lecture devoted to that region, and to show how the influence of Baghdad penetrated throughout the Islamic world.

* Great Mosque of Kairouan: describe the development of the North African T-plan; stress the influence of Baghdad in the arrangement of the luster tiles in the mihrab and the classical influence of the area in the form of the mihrab
* Mosque of the Three Doors: describe the phenomenon of the 9-dome mosques spread throughout the Islamic world and probably based on a Baghdad prototype but interpreted in local materials and styles
* Ribat: explain the usage of this building type as a monastery-fortress for soldiers engaged in jihad on the frontiers of the Islamic world
* Mosque of Ibn Tulun: outline the historical circumstances of Ibn Tuluns appointment and how this impacted upon the mosque which he built; describe the Samarran influences on this building in its construction material (brick in a land which habitually built in stone), its decoration (stucco with Samarra-based motifs), its structure (piers rather than columns as well as the addition of a ziyada), and its spiral-shaped minaret

The Spread of Islam: Iran & Central Asia; Spain

Aim: To introduce the earliest extant architecture in the eastern Islamic world, showing how Islamic forms developed using the traditional building techniques and materials of the region.

* Historical background: outline the emergence of independent dynasties in the eastern Islamic world pledging nominal allegiance to the caliph in Baghdad
* Materials: remind the students that brick (unbaked for most buildings, baked for monumental constructions) was the primary material used throughout Iran and Central Asia in the pre-Islamic period, with stucco decoration, and show that these materials continued to be used, albeit with new developments such as the influence of the Samarra styles on stucco carving (especially visible in the Friday Mosque of Nain and the No Gunbad Mosque)
* Techniques: explain that Sasanian building techniques, such as the use of squinches to support domes and the use of heavy piers, also continued, with the Tarik Khana in particular demonstrating its Sasanian heritage; show the continued development of squinches using the Samanid and Arab Ata mausolea and the first extant appearance of the pishtaq in the Arab Ata mausoleum
* No Gunbad: explain that this is a local manifestation of the 9-dome mosque form previously seen in Tunisia, here interpreted in eastern Islamic materials and construction techniques
* Funerary architecture: show that two different forms of mausoleum emerged, the domed square in Central Asia (Samanid & Arab Ata mausolea) and the tomb tower in northern Iran (Gunbad-i Qabus), both amongst the earliest extant funerary buildings anywhere in the Islamic world

Aim:To describe the architecture in the westernmost extension of the Islamic world, concentrating on the Umayyad caliphate but also showing how Spanish architecture developed up to the Reconquista

* Historical background: describe briefly the history of Islam in Spain, emphasizing the establishment of the Umayyad caliphate
* Great Mosque of Cordoba: outline the history of the mosque and its expansion, emphasizing the suitability of the hypostyle form for a growing community; describe how the hypostyle form was combined with local traditions and Visigothic spolia to produce a unique style; outline elements of Umayyad nostalgia for Syria seen in the structure and decoration of the mosque (e.g. use of mosaics, use of ablaq); explain the use of the maqsura
* Church of Cristo de la Luz: describe as a local manifestation of the 9-dome mosque form built distinctly in the Iberian idiom and directly imitating the Great Mosque of Cordoba in its domes
* Palaces: use the major palaces to show the evolution of the Iberian style from the Umayyads to the Nasrids and to illuminate the tradition of secular Islamic architecture which has rarely survived so well elsewhere

The Fatimids; The Seljuks

Aim: To describe the evolution of religious, funerary and military architecture under the Fatimids and how this was affected by the rule of an Ismaili Shiite dynasty.

Aim:To describe the advent of Turkish dynasties (including the Ghaznavids and Ghurids as well as the Seljuks), the reinstatement of Sunni orthodoxy under their rule, and the development of the characteristically Iranian mosque form, the four-ivan plan.

* Historical background: describe the advent of Turkish rule, beginning with the Ghaznavids and Qarakhanids and then the Seljuk takeover of Iran and Iraq; briefly describe important aspects of Seljuk rule, such as the reimposition of Sunni orthodoxy through the sponsorship of madrasas and the brilliant career of the Persian vizier Nizam al-Mulk
* Four-ivan plan: describe the evolution of the Friday Mosque of Isfahan through the rivalry between Nizam al-Mulk and his successor Taj al-Mulk and the development of the four-ivan plan; show other manifestations of this plan, such as Ardistan, Saveh and Zavareh
* Architectural decoration: emphasise the lavish stucco inscriptions and mihrab of Ardistan, the intricate brickwork of the mosque domes and also of the minarets at Saveh at Zavareh, the use of terracotta brick plugs (seen at Saveh), and the development of glazed tile decoration (seen on the minaret at Zavareh)
* Funerary architecture: describe the continuity of previous forms, both the tomb towers, seen in its Seljuk manifestation at Kharraqan, and the domed square (the mausoleum of Arslan Jadhib and tomb of Sultan Sanjar)

The Seljuks of Rum; The Zengids & Ayyubids

* Historical background: explain the emergence and unique structure of the Mamluk dynasty
* Urban setting: describe the dense urban fabric of Cairo and the consequences for Mamluk architecture, including the competition amongst patrons to garner attention, the need to fit buildings into any available space, and the emphasis on portals and minarets
* Complexes: outline reasons for the popularity of complexes during this period (e.g. genuine piety, legitimizing the construction of grand mausolea, providing for descendants through the administration of waqf, appeasing the public); introduce the khanqah as an architectural type with the complex of Baybars al-Jashankir; emphasize the Sultan Qalaun and Sultan Hasan complexes as uniquely outstanding monuments of Islamic architecture and spend time elaborating on their features
* Mosques: use the mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad as an example to describe mosque architecture of the Mamluks, emphasizing the decorative program as well as structure

Aim: To present the apex of Mamluk architecture.

The Ilkhanids; The Timurids

Aim: To describe the Mongol period in Iran as one of artistic continuity despite tremendous political upheavals, continuing the developments of the Seljuq period and setting the stage for the Timurids.

Aim: To describe the monumentality of Timurid architecture and set the stage for later developments under the Ottomans, Safivids, Mughals and Uzbeks

Sultanate India; The Uzbeks

Aim: To show the development of the central-domed mosque, the characteristic form of Ottoman architecture, in the early Ottoman period up through its apex in the Selimiyye Mosque of Sinan.

* Historical background: Outline the emergence of the Ottomans as a major power, their conquest of Constantinople, and their expansion through the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent
* Early Ottoman buildings: describe the central-domed mosques and religious complexes (kulliyes) of Bursa and Edirne before the conquest of Constantinople, stressing an ongoing dialogue with Byzantine architecture
* Sinan: briefly outline his life and career as background presenting his buildings; stress the inspiration of the Aghia Sophia and his determination to build a dome with a wider span; show the structural development of his mosques from early examples such as Sehzade Mehmet to his masterpiece, the Selimiyye; emphasise his role as a court architect and the exalted nature of his patrons, with implications such as the procurement of highly desirable sites (e.g. the Suleimaniyye), the use of multiple minarets in the imperial mosques, and his ability to procure unusual and expensive materials (e.g. spolia from throughout the empire, or Iznik tiles); describe how he worked with the topography of his sites (e.g. the Suleimaniyye) or the density of urban fabric (e.g. the Mosque of Rustem Pasha)

Aim: To show the development and continuity of Iranian traditions in the religious architecture of the Safavids as well as introducing innovations in urban planning under Shah Abbas II.

* Isfahan palaces: describe the architecture and layout of the palaces and how they fit into Shah Abbas plans for his capital; describe how the various palace buildings were used; emphasize the significance of the views over the Maidan-i Shah from the Ali Qapu; describe the decoration of the palace interiors and its significance, particularly the wall paintings; discuss Persian gardens and how the Chahar Bagh fit into the overall scheme for Isfahan
* Isfahan bridges: emphasize Safavid interest in promoting commerce, the founding of New Julfa, and the network of caravanserais built across Iran
* Hammam Ganj-i Ali Khan: show the Maidan of Ganj Ali Khan in Kerman as a smaller version of the Maidan-i Shah built by a loyal retainer of the shah

Aim: To present the diversity of imperial Mughal funerary architecture, including the buildings viewed as Mughal masterpieces, and their garden settings

* Historical background: outline the conquest of India by Babur and the careers of the Mughal emperors through Aurangzeb
* Funerary architecture: emphasize the diversity of Mughal tombs and the varying influences which were more important in some buildings than others (e.g. Timurid versus Indian traditions); stress variety and treat the monuments individually rather than leading in a linear progression to the Taj Mahal
* Timurid influences: double domes on high drums, ivans, radial symmetry
* Indian influences: chatris, use of marble and red sandstone
* European influences: pietra dura
* Innovations: compromises between a desire for an open, simple burial on the part of several emperors (Babur, Akbar, Jahangir, Aurangzeb) and the desire of his successors to build a monumental structure
* Gardens: show how the Timurid garden prototype developed in Mughal India, stressing paradise symbolism and how this fitted with funerary architecture

Aim: To present a fuller picture of Mughal architecture to complement the more famous imperial tombs discussed in the previous lecture.

The 19-20th Centuries

Aim: To show some of the ways in which Islamic architecture was affected by intensive contact with Europe through a selection of monuments from Turkey, Egypt and Iran.

* Historical background: briefly outline the main political events of the 19th century, emphasizing increasing European influence and the beginnings of colonization, and the reactions of the major powers of the Islamic world, the Ottomans and Qajars
* Turkey: show how European influence and Ottoman traditions combined in the Ottoman Baroque style (Nusretiye Mosque) and the almost completely Westernizing style of the Domabahce Palace
* Egypt: show how the de facto independence of Egypt from Ottoman rule was asserted by using the imperial Ottoman style in the Muhammad Ali Mosque; explain how Western influence and Egyptian (e.g. Mamluk) traditions combined in the al-Rifai Mosque
* Iran: show how Western influence combined with Iranian traditions in the Golestan Palace; emphasize Qajar interest in patronage of Shiite shrines with the Sahn-e Azade at the shrine of Imam Reza

Aim: To show the important debates and arguments that have sought to define the greatest legacy of Muslim civilisations; its art and architecture. The most important of these debates has taken place over the past twenty-five years in seminars organised by the Aga Khan Award for Architecture.